The ability to
report technical information clearly and concisely is fundamental to the
sciences. As such, science students are often required to prepare formal
reports about experiments or investigations undertaken in the practical
components of their courses. These reports must clearly communicate the aims, methods, findings, and conclusions of an experiment. This Learning Guide shows you how to prepare
a practical report and provides tips for ensuring a good grade.
Practical Report
Structure
Practical reports
have a clear, linear structure. Table 1 shows the different sections of a
practical report and states
the function of each section.
(Requirements for individual courses maybe different.)
Table 1. Practical report sections and
section functions
|
Section |
Function |
|
Title |
Clearly
and concisely informs the reader of the practical report topic (a title may
be provided to you), e.g., influence of nitrate on the nodulation of medics. |
|
Introduction (Approx. word count: 200) |
Provides
background information needed for the reader to understand the context and
purpose of the experiment. At the end of the introduction,
the aim is clearly stated. |
|
Materials
and Methods (Approx. word count: 300) |
Describes
what was done in the experiment. Includes
materials used and procedures followed. |
|
Results (Approx. word count: 300) |
Presents the findings of the experiment. |
|
Discussion (Approx. word count: 500) |
Interprets
and explains the findings, and places them in the context of background information. |
|
Conclusion (Approx. word count: 200) |
Summarises
findings and interpretations. |
|
References |
Presents
the sources of information used in the report. |
|
Appendix/Appendices |
Provides
detailed information (when necessary). |
Introduction
The introduction gives the reader
background information about the topic of the practical report, and places your report in the
context of that background information. You should begin by summarizing what is
already known about the topic. Because of this, the introduction will often
need to include references. The introduction should
then highlight how your report
relates to the background information, e.g., through
investigating a research gap, examining the physical properties of a rock or
demonstrating a scientific law. The introduction should culminate in a clear
statement of the aim of the experiment.
Structure your introduction to
answer the following two questions:
1. What
is known about this topic?
2. Why was the
experiment performed?
Materials and
Methods
The materials
and methods section thoroughly describes how you carried out your experiment
and should provide the reader with sufficient information to replicate the
experiment. Structure your materials and methods section to provide a
step-by-step account of what you did when you performed the experiment.
Your
materials and methods section should answer the following two questions:
1. What
materials were used?
2. How
were the materials used?
Use past tense because
you are providing a description of what you did, however
avoid the use of
personal pronouns, e.g., I or we. If you have been told to refer to the
Practical Manual for the materials and methods
section, be sure to provide
page numbers for the relevant
experiment and include the
Practical Manual as a reference. Alternately, you may be required to rewrite
the ‘dot point style’ instructions found in your Practical Manual into
narrative form.
For example, change
·
Add 0.2 mL aliquot of enzyme to start the
reaction and incubate for 30 min at 25 oC.
to
The reaction was started by the
addition of a 0.2 mL aliquot of enzyme and incubated for 30 min at 25 oC.
Results
The results
section is where you present the data obtained in your experiment in a logical
order. Depending on how much data you have, it is usually best to summarize
results. Your complete datasets can be included as an appendix. It is desirable
to display results using tables or figures (e.g., graphs or photographs).
Tables and figures in the results section must be referred to in the text before the table or figure is presented
(see examples below). Tables and figures must also have titles. The title belongs
above a table and below a figure. Do not replicate how you present the data. If
data is in a table, the same data must not also be presented in a graph.
Examples of presenting a figure in the
results section:
·
This study
compared the memory of mice and guinea
pigs using a maze with a reward at the end. Results show that mice completed
the maze without error after an average of 15 attempts compared to an average
of 24 attempts for guinea pigs (Figure 1).
· This study compared the memory of mice and guinea pigs using a maze with a reward at the end. Figure 1 shows that mice completed the maze without error after an average of 15 attempts compared to an average of 24 attempts for guinea pigs.
Importantly, do not include interpretations of your data in the results
section. Save that for the discussion! Instead, simply present the data for
what it is.
Discussion
The purpose of the discussion section is to provide an explanation for your results and to interpret those results
in the context of existing theory and knowledge. Therefore, the discussion section will generally
need to include references.
The discussion section
should cover the following points,
but note that for some experiments not all of these points will be relevant:
·
Relate results
back to the aim
· Provide an explanation of why the experiment
produced those results
· Compare and contrast results to findings of
other research
· Identify problems in experimental technique or
design and suggest an improvement
· State the significance of your results and
suggest areas for future research
In the discussion, do not simply restate the
results. You must interpret the data. For example, what trends are evident in
the data? What are the implications of your results? Do your results fulfill the
aim of the experiment? Are there any potential errors present in the results?
Think carefully about how you structure
the discussion so you achieve
logical flow from one topic to the next.
Conclusion
The conclusion summarises key results and
interpretations of the experiment. The conclusion should be concise and brief.
Importantly, the conclusion should not introduce
any new information.
References
It is standard academic practice to provide
the details of references used in your report. References are required both in
text and in a list at the end of your report. Do not include information
sources that you read but did not use in the report, just include the sources
you actually cite (or mention) in the report.
The reference list must be presented in alphabetical order by the first author. Do not use dot
points or numbers in the reference list. Generally, you will be required to
reference according to the Harvard referencing style, but make sure that you
use the referencing style recommended by your lecturer and follow the style
consistently.
Appendices
Appendices maybe used to present
detailed information that is not critical to the content
of your report, such as
calculations or raw data.
Tips
for Getting the Best Possible Grade
There are a number of strategies you can use to get a good grade for your practical report. Perhaps the
most important advice is to carefully
follow any instructions provided by your lecturer or described in the
Practical Manual. When no specific instructions are provided, check the rubric to determine
what the marker
is looking for. Remember that the marker
has to follow the rubric, so if you leave something out that has been allocated marks on the rubric, that will impact
on your grade. Other
important strategies for getting a good grade
are:
·
Make it easy for the marker to give you the marks, for example, make sure
that your aim is not ‘buried’ in text.
·
Scientific
writing is clear, concise, objective and accurate, not vague and ambiguous.
·
Use subheadings
(if applicable).
·
Avoid using
direct quotes.
·
Avoid using
contracted words, e.g., won’t.
·
Avoid using
emotive language, e.g., beautifully.
·
Avoid the use of
personal pronouns, e.g., I, we.
·
Use past tense
and make sure you are consistent.
·
When beginning a
new sentence with a number, write the number in words, e.g., Eighteen mice were
used in this experiment (same for elements, e.g., Arsenic concentrations are
greater…)
·
Use italics and
correct binomial nomenclature for scientific names, e.g., Macropus rufus and thereafter M.
rufus. Common names are in lower case and do not require italics.
·
Introduce
acronyms correctly, e.g., The World Health Organisation (WHO) states that…
·
Be consistent
with abbreviations and nomenclature.
·
Check sentence
structure. Is the meaning of every sentence
clear?
·
Check each
section flows logically from one paragraph to
another.
·
Use correct
paragraph structure and one topic
per paragraph:
Topic sentence: Acts like a
mini-subheading, clearly introducing the topic of the paragraph.
Body sentences: Provides evidence
and explanation about the topic.
Concluding sentence: Concludes the topic and links to the next paragraph.
·
Give yourself
plenty of time to prepare the practical report.
·
Be prepared to
work on your writing. Editing your work is very important.
·
Show your
practical report to a friend or relative. Can they understand it?